Many genes influence B vitamins requirement. Changes in these genes can put you at high risk for B vitamin deficiencies. Learn more with the Gene Nutrition Report:
Vitamin B2, also called riboflavin, is one of the eight vitamins in the vitamin B complex.
It is a nutrient that plays a vital role in maintaining our bodily functions.
For example, vitamin B2 helps the body make new RBCs or red blood cells.
It also helps digest protein, carbohydrates, and fats in the body.
Vitamin B2 is a water-soluble vitamin.
It is excreted out of the body through urine.
So, it is important to meet your vitamin B2 requirements.
Adult men can take up to 1.3 mg of vitamin B2 daily.
Adult women can take up to 1.1 mg of vitamin B2 daily.
Pregnant and lactating women are advised to take 1.4 mg of vitamin B2 daily.
Since excess vitamin B2 is excreted through urine, it usually does not result in an overdose.
However, always make sure to consult your doctor before taking any supplement.
Instead of taking supplements, you might also consider eating these foods to get vitamin B2:
Vitamin B2 plays several important roles in supporting human health:
B2 is crucial for breaking down (metabolizing) the macros, that is, proteins, carbs, and fats, from the food we eat.
Vitamin B2 supports the absorption of other B vitamins in the body by converting them to a suitable form.
Riboflavin, or vitamin B2, is said to improve vision and reduce the risk of several conditions of the eye, including cataracts and glaucoma.
Vitamin B2 supports skin and hair health by reducing visible signs of aging, reducing acne, and promoting strong hair and nails.
Studies suggest that a B2 deficiency can slow down wound healing. Further supplementation of this vitamin can promote faster healing.
By reducing oxidative stress and nerve inflammation, vitamin B2 helps alleviate migraines.
Riboflavin supports the activity of several enzymes that are crucial for metabolism. A deficiency of B2 can increase the risk for many health conditions, including heart disease and cancer.
People who cut down on meat, fortified foods, and dairy are at an increased risk of riboflavin deficiency.
Excess of it is eliminated from the body through urine or stool.
When a person has frequent diarrhea, large amounts of riboflavin are eliminated from the body.
This makes the person prone to deficiency of vitamin B2.
Alcohol promotes improper absorption of vitamin B2 in the body, thus causing its deficiency.
Dialysis very often filters out water-soluble vitamins such as riboflavin from the body.
In this condition, your lips and mouth are filled with cracked sores.
It is a painful condition that can indicate a vitamin B2 deficiency.
Your eyes, ears, nasolabial folds, and scrotum, or labia majora, become red, scaly, and greasy.
This could indicate a riboflavin deficiency in the body.
Vegans don’t consume milk or eggs.
If any dietary supplement is not added, they might face vitamin B2 deficiency.
It is crucial both for maternal and child health.
For example, pregnant women who consume little milk or meat are at risk of developing vitamin B2 deficiency.
Antidepressants and anti-psychotics might lower vitamin B2 levels in the body.
Some cancer medications might also lower vitamin B2 absorption by the body.
Riboflavin deficiency can cause several health conditions, such as:
In case of severe riboflavin deficiency, it can cause cataracts and anemia.
Riboflavin deficiency can also cause degeneration of the nervous system.
In addition, normal metabolism will be affected in case of vitamin B2 deficiency.
Most people can get the required dose of vitamin B2 from a healthy balanced diet.
Consider including fatty fish and eggs in your diet.
If you are a vegetarian, replace these with soybeans.
Organ meats such as liver and kidney are also high in riboflavin.
Vegans can consume tempeh or tofu for vitamin B2.
Make sure to include dairy products and nuts in your daily diet.
Vitamin B2 is an essential nutrient for the body.
It plays a vital role in the metabolism and digestion of other macro-nutrients.
Vitamin B2 can cause disorders such as anemia, cataracts, and mouth ulcers.
This vitamin is found in dairy products, nuts, specific fruits and vegetables, and cereals.
Including all these in a properly balanced diet will ensure you get your required vitamin B2.
DNA tests have a significant role in forensics for many unsolved legal cases.
Autosomal DNA tests are popular for determining parent/child relationships with a high level of accuracy. It looks at maternal and paternal data.
On the other hand, Y DNA tests look at only paternal data, which is helpful in genealogical research.
Humans carry 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell; 22 pairs are autosomes, and one pair is an allosome.
Autosomes are numbered chromosomes like chromosome 1, chromosome 2, etc.
Allosome is a sex chromosome that can be either XX (assigned female at birth) or XY (assigned male at birth).
Y DNA is one of the male sex chromosomes inherited from the father and another chromosome (X) from the mother.
Y DNA is inherited only from the biological father.
Y DNA possesses the SRY gene that produces the protein sex-determining region of the Y-chromosome.
This protein is involved in male-typical sex development.
The structure of the Y chromosome is a block of non-recombining DNA (heterozygous state) transmitted solely through males.
It will be the same for grandfathers, great-grandfathers, and forefathers of ancestry if the paternal lineage is unbroken with a female child.
Mutations in the Y DNA occur rarely, and consistent inheritance is helpful in chromosome DNA testing.
Y DNA is the major sex-determining chromosome in people assigned male at birth.
It is responsible for the development of the male reproductive system.
Y DNA is vital to trace the paternal lineage back hundreds or even thousands of years of ancestry (family tree).
Y DNA is a genealogical DNA, inherited unchanged from father to son, which will determine the direct father-line ancestry.
Y DNA reveals deep geographic origins and genetic relationships.
Y DNA is effective in archaeology, which shows the human occupation of the Americas before the development of the Clovis lithic culture.
Evidence from the Y chromosome points to the advent of humans in the Americas between 10 to 20,000 years ago.
Y DNA is a non-recombining DNA and has a low mutation rate, making it easy to find the common ancestor with your paternal line.
Y DNA test is a male-specific genealogical DNA test used to determine the paternal lineage of biological males.
There are two kinds of Y-DNA tests, the Y-DNA STR test and the Y-DNA SNP test, which have different purposes in DNA testing.
Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) are small repetitive DNA sequences that account for ~3% of the whole human genome.
In Y-DNA STR tests, STR makers on the Y chromosome measure the number of times the DNA sequences are repeated.
Though Y-DNA STR tests are variable and mutative, it establishes the timeframe when two men share a common paternal ancestor.
Unlike Y-DNA STR markers, Y-DNA SNP markers are stable over many generations.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) is a genetic change that occurs at a single specific position in the genome.
An SNP mutation is carried indefinitely by descendants of the individual in whom the SNP had formed – the SNP Progenitor.
Y-DNA SNP tests detect the mutations/ variations and distinguish one genetic lineage from the other.
SNP testing, such as the Big Y-700 test, gives information on haplotree (genetic family tree) and time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA).
Image: Y-DNA Test
Y DNA tests can be taken at home like many other DNA tests.
Only males can take the Y DNA test for insights about their biological father’s lineage.
The best way to choose the right test taker is to pick the person from a family tree with only sons and no daughters.
The man descending from that ancestor would have inherited the Y chromosome DNA through several generations.
You can take up the test if you are a male who wants to
Here are some possible results and interpretations you can expect from the Y DNA test.
The test compares the 12-marker results of one person to the 12-marker results of another person with the same surname.
Recently related means a time frame of about 1000 years or 40 generations.
Females cannot take the Y DNA test since they don’t inherit Y chromosome DNA.
If females wish to take the Y DNA test, they can opt for their brother, father, paternal uncle, or paternal grandfather as test takers.
A Y-DNA STR test is ideal for establishing whether alleged male relatives are biologically related.
The Big Y-700 test is most useful when you have traditional Y DNA testing with good match scores going back at least eight generations.
Rapamycin is an FDA-approved immunosuppressive drug.
It is administered to patients who have undergone organ transplants to prevent organ rejection.
Rapamycin also has potent anti-tumor properties and is used to treat certain types of cancer.
Rapamycin is an immunosuppressant.
It is used as a coating agent for heart stents.
It is also used for patients who have undergone organ transplants.
Rapamycin prevents organ rejection by suppressing the body’s immune system.
Understanding your genetic risk for health conditions and working towards reducing it is a proven way to promote longevity.
Rapamycin was discovered in 1972.
It was found in the soil of Easter Island.
Scientists found that a bacteria called Streptomyces hygroscopius was producing it.
The name “Rapamycin” comes from Rapa Nui, the indigenous name for Easter Island.
The medical name for Rapamycin is Sirolimus.
Rapamycin has a lot of uses in medicine.
It is routinely prescribed to people who have undergone an organ transplant.
It reduces the chances of organ rejection.
It is also used to treat lung disorders.
Rapamycin has potent anti-tumor properties and is used to treat cancer.
Rapamycin is an mTOR inhibitor.
mTOR regulates cell growth and coordinates cell cycle progression.
Therefore, suppressing the mTOR gene might be beneficial, as it has been shown to reduce cancer risk.
Scientists have recently started testing Rapamycin to promote longevity.
A few 20-month-old mice were given Rapamycin.
This age is equivalent to 60 years of human generation.
The mice were then left under observation.
Usually, the mice would have died at about 30 months of age.
But after taking Rapamycin, the mice lived for extra two months.
One mice even went on to live for three years!
Scientists have concluded from this experiment that Rapamycin may be responsible for increasing lifespan.
There is very little research to show that Rapamycin makes you look younger.
However, some rudimentary research shows that Rapamycin slows aging.
In addition, topical Rapamycin has shown some evidence to reduce the photoaging of the skin.
Some research shows that Rapamycin can slow down aging.
However, there is no research to show that it can reverse aging.
Rapamycin can increase lifespan.
There is no fixed dosage of rapamycin supplement.
However, 5-6 mg weekly is considered a safe level.
Always make sure that you consult your doctor before starting any medication or supplement.
Rapamycin is a prescription drug.
You will require a prescription from a doctor to be able to take it.
Rapamycin should always take under the guidance of a doctor.
The FDA approves Rapamycin.
Humans can safely consume it.
However, its efficacy as an anti-aging drug is still under research.
There is no fixed age as to when you can start taking Rapamycin.
However, scientists usually advise young people, especially those under 30, not to take Rapamycin.
It is because childhood and adolescence are periods of rapid growth.
Hence, taking Rapamycin at that age is not a good idea.
Instead, it is best taken in middle age, as seen in the mice experiment.
Rapamycin is FDA-approved.
It has long been used to treat cancer and lung diseases.
It has also been used as an immunosuppressive agent.
However, whether it reverses aging is still debatable.
Rapamycin is an immunosuppressant.
Transplant patients are regularly given Rapamycin to prevent organ rejection.
Rapamycin is a prescription drug and should always be taken under the guidance of a doctor.
Side effects of rapamycin supplements can range from mild-moderate to severe.
Rapamycin can cause:
Rapamycin is a potent anti-cancer and immunosuppressive agent.
It is given as a prescription to organ transplant patients.
It is also used to treat certain cancers and lung diseases.
Recently, scientists have found that Rapamycin has anti-aging properties.
In addition, it can increase lifespan in mice.
However, its safety as an anti-aging drug is being tested.
Rapamycin can cause some potentially dangerous side effects.
However, research shows that rapamycin supplement can be used to slow down aging.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6814615/
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/08/220829112829.htm
A sibling DNA test examines whether two or more people are biological siblings.
The test identifies whether they share both parents or one in common.
However, it is not as effective as paternity or maternity tests; it is helpful when the alleged parents (genetic parents) are unavailable for testing.
It relies on a statistical probability to compare the DNA of potential siblings.
It determines the amount of DNA matching (siblingship index or sibship index) between the individuals tested.
If the siblingship index is less than 1.0, there is no relationship.
If the siblingship index is greater than 1.0, the tested persons are either full siblings (both parents in common) or half siblings (one common parent).
Based on sibship index values, three results are possible from sibling DNA tests:
Full siblings share both parents in common,i.e., the same biological mother and father.
The genetic information of full siblings is the same for the individuals tested since they share DNA from both parents.
Half siblings share only one parent in common, i.e., either father or mother in common.
The genetic information of half-siblings is different for the individuals tested since they share DNA from only one parent.
Maternal half-siblings share the DNA from only the mother only, and paternal half-siblings share the DNA from only the father.
Full siblings should have a full sibling index value greater than 1 in their sibling DNA test. (full sibship index is higher than half sibship index).
Half siblings should have half sibling index value greater than 1 in their sibling DNA test. (half sibship index is higher than full sibship).
Unrelated individuals should have a half-sibling index value of less than 1.
Non-legal direct-to-consumer sibling tests can take 8-10 weeks from the time you place an order.
However, some companies deliver the results within a month.
A sibling DNA test can be of two types:
A legal sibling DNA test is a court-admissible test that requires an appointment from the government for all participants.
The samples are collected by a neutral party, like a doctor or lab technician, who is unrelated to the investigating individuals.
Proper witnesses and fingerprints of the involved parties were noted under vigilance.
Legal sibling DNA tests are employed for the following reasons:
Non-legal sibling DNA test (private DNA sibling test) is for informational or personal use. It is performed at home using a test kit without any assistance from medical technicians.
The reports are the same as the legal tests but are not intended to be used in court.
The At-home sibling DNA test kit can be ordered online.
The kit contains all the necessary instructions on how to use it.
The sample is collected by cheek (buccal) swab sticks and sealed in a given envelope.
The buccal cells contain the DNA, which provides genetic information.
The sealed sample is shipped back to the lab, and the results are obtained via mail.
Salivary samples may also be used here.
If 23andMe genotyped you and your siblings, the relationship is determined based on specific traits.
DNA Relatives
This feature finds other 23andMe users whose DNA matches yours.
Based on how much DNA is shared, people are categorized into relationships.
The presence of identical DNA sequences in two individuals suggests that they have a recent common ancestor.
The length and quantity of these identical segments determine the relationship between people.
If you have full or partial siblings, your relationship with them is referred to as "siblings" or "half-siblings," respectively.
Your Connections
This feature enables you to compare your genome to that of your siblings.
Full siblings will have more completely identical and some partially identical regions.
Only a small number of regions will be identical in half-siblings.
Histamine is a chemical released in the body to counter allergies.
High levels of this chemical in the bloodstream can cause discomfort.
Some people are more prone to histamine intolerance due to genetic causes.
Histamine is a chemical that protects the body from specific allergens.
It is released in the blood when common allergens like pollen and mold enter the body.
Histamine also plays an essential role in digestion.
It signals the brain to release stomach acids.
Histamine is an important chemical that safeguards the body against allergies.
However, too much of it in the body can cause uncomfortable symptoms like a runny and congested nose.
Most people can easily break down too much histamine.
But some people have genetic reasons that prevent them from adequately digesting histamine.
Histamine intolerance symptoms are challenging to diagnose, even by medical professionals.
In addition, these symptoms overlap with many other conditions and disorders.
However, you can still look out for these symptoms:
It is challenging to exclude certain foods based on their histamine secretion-inducing property.
However, fermented or highly processed foods might cause a problem if you are histamine intolerant.
These foods can be eliminated from your diet and then added back gradually.
Sauerkraut is a type of fermented cabbage dish eaten in Germany.
It increases allergy symptoms in the body.
Histamine reacts with sulfites present in edible alcohol.
Therefore, migraines are often a result of alcohol intolerance.
The cooking method, too, changes the meat’s qualities.
For example, boiled meat is less of an allergen than grilled meat.
These legumes can irritate the mucous membrane of the nose and trigger histamine secretion.
Some people cannot metabolize histamine in their bodies.
This could be due to changes in specific genes.
Histamine is metabolized by two enzymes: diamine oxidase (DAO) and histamine N-methyltransferase (HNMT).
In some people, the genes that contain instructions for producing these enzymes have certain changes in them.
This can lead to lower enzyme levels or enzymes with defective activity.
When this happens, histamine is not broken down effectively.
As a result, histamine build-up occurs, giving rise to all the symptoms.
A genetic test may not be able to diagnose histamine intolerance.
However, it can help identify your risk for this condition.
The test analyzes the genes responsible for producing enzymes that break down histamine to detect any changes.
The test results are used to arrive at a score based on which your risk for histamine intolerance can be identified.
The average histamine level in the blood is 0.3-1.0 ng/mL.
Anything above that can cause histamine intolerance.
Above 1-2 ng/mL, heart rate and stomach acid secretion increase.
Above 3-5 ng/mL, flushing, headaches, and skin itching can happen.
Once the histamine levels are above 100 ng/mL, it can cause a heart attack.
Eating foods high in histamine can also have adverse effects on the body.
For example, eating rotten fish can lead to severe vibrations and blocking of airways.
Different levels of histamine might trigger tolerant and sensitive individuals.
75 mg of liquid histamine can cause allergy symptoms in healthy people.
But histamine intolerant people can be triggered by a much lower amount than that.
For example, canned sardines can trigger a histamine reaction at a lower threshold in sensitive people.
A histamine intolerance diet would mean limiting the consumption of certain foods.
Most fermented foods tend to trigger a histamine reaction.
Eating fresh meat, cooked egg yolk, and plant-based milk is ideal for sensitive people.
Most fresh fruits can also be eaten, except citrus fruits like strawberries.
Histamine is a chemical that shields the body from allergens.
But too much of it can cause adverse effects and problems.
Most healthy individuals can break down histamine naturally in their bodies.
However, people sensitive to histamine can have an overload of this chemical.
It can cause mild symptoms like nasal congestion to severe symptoms like heart block.
Certain foods can cause high histamine levels in the body, and sensitive people should avoid their consumption.
Histamine-intolerant people should eat fresh fruits, meat, and vegetables.
Ghrelin, or the hunger hormone, is produced primarily by the stomach.
This hormone is released as a signal to the brain that the stomach is empty and it is time to eat.
Levels of ghrelin increase between mealtimes and reduce when the stomach is full.
While obese individuals have low ghrelin levels, people who restrict their caloric intake are found to have higher levels of the hormone.
Besides telling your brain you are hungry, ghrelin performs several other functions, such as:
Due to its multifunctional nature, ghrelin is a multifaceted gut hormone.
When empty, the stomach releases ghrelin that travels through the blood to reach the brain.
Here, it acts on the hypothalamus (part of the brain that produces hormones to regulate multiple body functions, including hunger and thirst).
In the hypothalamus, ghrelin activates the growth hormone secretagogue receptor that stimulates hunger.
Ghrelin also activates gastric acid production, which ensures digestion after a meal.
Other parts of the digestive system, like the small intestine and pancreas, also produce small amounts of ghrelin.
Studies have shown that people who are trying to lose weight or have recently lost weight have higher ghrelin levels.
This increases their hunger levels, making it difficult to maintain weight loss.
Image: Hunger regulation by leptin and ghrelin hormones
Studies have reported that ghrelin plays a role in glucose balance in the body and may cause type 2 diabetes.
A study conducted in 2003 stated that low ghrelin is independently associated with type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, and elevated blood pressure.
So, ghrelin may have a role to play in the development of type 2 diabetes.
A mutation (genetic change) associated with low ghrelin plasma concentration is the Arg51GIn.
Ghrelin concentrations are low in people with metabolic conditions like type 2 diabetes.
Many studies report that ghrelin inhibits insulin secretion, causing elevated blood glucose levels or type 2 diabetes.
Ghrelin levels are lower in overweight individuals than in lean individuals.
In fact, ghrelin levels are high in people with anorexia nervosa or cachexia.
This shows how the body makes up for weight loss by inducing food intake and fat storage.
Increased appetite may lead to weight gain, and ghrelin regulates hunger and appetite.
Ghrelin also tells the body to decrease the burning of brown fat (Brown fat burning increases overall calorie burning, enabling weight loss).
Besides appetite, ghrelin also influences your sleep-wake cycle, taste sensation, and reward-seeking behavior.
While ghrelin does not directly contribute to obesity, its levels increase after dieting.
This makes it difficult to lose weight or sustain diet-induced weight loss.
Further studies are required to understand the correlation between ghrelin and obesity.
Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor or GHSR is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family.
It is located on the q arm of chromosome 3.
This gene gives instructions for producing a protein that participates in homeostasis and regulates body weight.
Ghrelin hormone binds to the GHSR receptor and activates the downstream signaling pathways like cAMP response element (CRE) mediated transportation.
Along with its several molecules, this pathway brings about appetite regulation, energy homeostasis, fat accumulation, mood regulation, cognitive functions, and reward-related food behavior.
So far, no study has identified a clear relationship between GHSR gene variants and obesity or type 2 diabetes.
However, a few findings from a 2008 study that may be worth noting are:
None of the polymorphisms in the GHSR gene have so far been associated with type 2 diabetes.
